The Three Aims of Life

Kama Sutra - Part One

Chapter Two: The Three Aims of Life

1     During the one hundred years of his life, a man must pursue the three aims successively, without one being prejudicial to another.

During the first three periods of his life, a man must realize himself on three interdependent levels, which are virtue [dharma], wealth [artha], and love [kama], harmonizing them in such a way that none is prejudicial to the others.

Holy scripture describes the three aims that women, notwithstanding their dependence on men, must also achieve on their side. For the man who wishes to have progeny, the sexual relations without desire “lat he must have with his legitimate wife concern virtue and interest; if desire exists, then virtue and eroticism are involved.

Approaches to a girl of a good family, made with marriage in mind, are a matter of self-interest and virtue. On the other hand, approaches made to a married woman or a girl of low social level in order  to gain her favors are a question of money and eroticism. Approaches one s wife for nonprocreative loveplay involve eroticism and virtue.

Approaches toward a married woman of whatever social condition in return for money are tied to eroticism and money. Approaches made for the purpose of sexual relations to an unmarried girl who is a virgin concern ethics, society, and eroticism. If the girl to be seduced comes from a good family, the social aspect is the most important, although tied to eroticism and ethics. Due to its social consequences, mutual desire concerns ethics, society, and eroticism.

All men desire long life, knowledge, fame, love, justice, and final salvation. Living beings other than man seek only survival.

Only the teaching of the Vedas, while giving due importance to longevity, the satisfaction of all human desires, and the equal rights of all, leads to liberation. For long life, pure food (sattvika) is most important. Those who are careful about food avoid sickness, and are always happy and cheerful. Moreover, they acquire qualities connected with good luck, such as strength, beauty, intelligence, memory, and patience. Apart from food, air, water, and exercise are factors of a long life. Beside these, anxiety must be avoided. “Just as fire burns the dead, so anxiety burns the living and reduces them to ashes.” Another element of long life is continence. The yoga texts speak of chastity as a “gain of sperm” (viryalabha). The wise man who controls his sperm is death’s conqueror.

2 Childhood must be dedicated to acquiring knowledge.

This period lasts up to the age of sixteen.

3 Eroticism predominates in adulthood.

4 Old age must be dedicated to the practice of virtue and spiritual pursuit [mokûa].

Although a certain period of life is attributed, to the practice of each of the three aims, they are interdependent and present at all ages.

5 Since life’s duration is uncertain, all opportunities must be taken advantage of.

6 Celibacy is recommended during the period of study, for the acquiring of knowledge.

7 Discernment concerns apparent as well as invisible things. Due to their supernatural and invisible results, the practice of yajña and other ritual ceremonies can only be known through the sacred texts. Since their nature is material and visible, actions such as abstaining from meat, because forbidden by the texts, are a matter of morality or dharma.

Since life’s duration is uncertain, must a child be deprived of erotic realization? Vàtsyàyana endeavors to answer this question by quoting: “Knowledge must be acquired while living chastely.”

According to Vàtsyàyana, after the rite of shaving the head, one should learn to read and count. After the rite of the sacred string, one should study the three sciences (traya vidya) with respected masters and scholars. Up to sixteen years of age, one should remain chaste. Then, having accomplished the rite of the gift of a cow, one should marry. Once married, one should keep contact with persons of culture, since contact with well-informed people is the basis of progress and the increase of knowledge. Vàtsyàyana and Kautilya insist on the importance of study and chastity in youth, inasmuch as control over the senses is necessary for progress in learning. It is by dominating eroticism, anger, envy, vanity, excitement, and exhilaration that the senses can be kept under control.

Virtue is of two kinds, inclination toward certain actions and detachment from others.

According to the Mahabharata, the word dharma has a very wide meaning. It comes from the root dharana: “support.” The various meanings of the word are:

Good deed (sukriya), merit (pujya)

Accomplishment of the rites (vaidika vidhi, yajña, etc.)

Dharma-raja, “The Judge,” is the name of the regent of the infernal world

Law (nyaya)

The underlying nature (svabhava) of beings

Conduct (achara)

The drinker of soma (the elixir of immortality)

Dharma also refers to:

The means of attaining future results by conduct required by the Scriptures

The behavior taught by Vedic or traditional texts

The invisible results of prescribed conduct

The individual or universal soul (atman)

Proper conduct (sadachara)

The qualities (guna) of the individual

The relative value (upama) of things

Ritual sacrifices (yajña)

Nonviolence

Keeping good company (satsangha)

Magical practices (upanishad)

Archery (dhanusha)

The ninth lunar house (in astrology)

Charity (dana), etc.

According to the symbolic etymologies (Nirukta), the root of the word dharma means “that which supports the world.” For the Kàma Sùtra, it means “rules of conduct.” Virtue (dharma) is the source of happiness (sukha), which is of two kinds, in this world, or the next.

8 One must behave according to the instructions of those who know the Scriptures.

“The Veda is the basis of dharma” (Manu); eroticism (kama) is the touchstone of virtue.

9 Artha signifies material goods, wealth. Artha consists of acquiring and increasing, within the limits of dharma, knowledge, land, gold, cattle, patrimony, crockery, furniture, friends, clothing, etc.

According to the Artha Úàstra of Kautilya, Artha is the “means of existence of mankind” [manusbya vritti].

Dharma applies to the spirit, artha to the body. Without sexuality [kàma], the body would not be born at all, and without a body there is no future life.

10 It is from those that know their subject that one can decide the time for sowing or the methods for raising cattle.

The Artha Úàstra explains all the techniques of economy and government, but there is a great difference between true knowledge and the texts that teach it.

11 Kàma signifies the mental inclination [pravritti] toward the pleasures of touch, sight, taste, and smell, to the extent that the practitioner derives satisfaction from it.

Kàma is the perception of the power of illusion [avidya] materialized in an object, since from perception is born desire, attraction fakarshana], ardor [samvega]. The tendency to possess oneself of these objects of the senses is eroticism [kama].

Eroticism is of two kinds, general [pradhana] or specific.

12 Particularly concerned with touch, closely connected to selfish pleasure, eroticism is an experience that finds its finality in itself. This is the most general aspect of Eros [pradhanya kama].

The organs of action are the tongue, the hand, the foot, the anus, and the sexual organ. Of these, leaving aside the pleasures deriving from speech, the highest pleasure is the reciprocal discovery by man and woman of the natural differences of the lower part of their bodies, which are the vulva and the penis. This pleasure is connected with the sense of touch, seated particularly in the organ known as upastha [the sexual organ], which, in the act of procreation, causes wonderful bliss [ànanda],

This experience is essentially connected with the sense of touch. A whirl of pleasurable sensations is connected with the perception of the organ of touch. The desire for such experience is the cause of the state of erotic excitement in both man and woman. In the woman, it manifests itself as a diffuse desire for contact with the man, while for the latter, it is desire of the pleasure of touching, especially the thighs and center of the body.

A specific desire [vishesha] is the urge to achieve a result [phala]. Seeking for sexual relations has its aim in the pleasure experienced at the moment sperm is emitted. This enjoyment is called the result [phala]. from the point of view of touch, this moment is a special experience, because the previous pleasurable sensations did not bear fruit.

Since this experience is oriented toward a goal, the sensation of touch is not its essence. The achievement of a goal is therefore distinct from eroticism.

Kissing, biting, and scratching with the nails, which serve to augment the erotic charge of both men and women, belong to general eroticism. They are not considered forms of possession.

The fact that the sexual act has a goal poses a difficult problem. Yashodhara considers as a whole the continuity of pleasure, starting from kisses and caresses up to the emission of sperm. Vàtsyàyana, however, differs from Yashodhara since he considers procreation as the real goal. According to the Atharva Veda [14.1 and 14.2], “Wife! Stretch yourself with pleasure on this bed and procreate sons for your husband. You will be blessed like the Queen of Heaven. You shall awake at dawn, before the rising of the sun.”

“Prudent men take a wife early, intermingling their bodies as’they must. 0 thou astonishing creature, able to procreate children, unite with your husband!”

“O Supreme God that protectest this woman in whom I have today planted my seed, inspire her so that she realizes my wish, full of desire as I am, and that, opening her thighs, she allows my penis to assail her vagina.” “Wife! I made my penis slide effortlessly along the path of your vagina, between your thighs. I marked with red this sublime union connected with the sun.”

“Man! With your hand, stroke the virginal thighs of your wife and joyfully both beget a son so that the sun god will prolong your life.”

“Let us throw into the fire, together with the blanket, the defilements we have left in the marriage act.”

The meaning of these Vedic texts suggests that: Love must be made at night so as to avoid fear, doubt, or inconvenience. Before copulating, embraces and caresses must be exchanged so that man and woman experience feelings of pleasure. Once the light is extinguished, caresses are not only made without shyness, but the pleasure is greater. Man and woman must take pleasure in the act with satisfaction and they must both take care not to injure the fetus. At the entry to the vagina, there is a delicate membrane that breaks at the first union. This is why the man must take care not to hurt the girl.

The act must be performed in the normal position, since children begotten in an abnormal posture are deformed. For reasons of hygiene and cleanliness, a bath must be taken after making love.

The Chandogya Upaniûad compares the sexual act to the ritual of the Sàma Veda, “The message to the girl is the spark . . . ,” etc.

13 Sexual behavior is to be learned with the aid of the Kàma Sùtra and the counsel of worthy men, experts in the arts of pleasure.

Without knowing the technical texts, a man who follows only his own fantasy knows neither success, happiness, nor supreme bliss. A master is one whose teachings lead to the achievement of virtue, success, and pleasure. In the Upanishads, after educating his disciple as well as he can, the master says, “Tell the truth, live honestly, never boast of your knowledge, do not fail to beget a son” (Taittiriya Upaniûad).

In order not to break the ancestral line, it is important to have studied erotic arts before marriage, during one’s period of study.

14 The relative importance and value of things must be taken into account. Money is more important than love, social success more important than success in love, and virtue is more important than success and fortune.

The ordinary virtues [samanya dharma] are nonviolence, honesty, chastity, avoiding anger and envy, striving to love all living beings equally. Vàtsyàyana is in favor of the social hierarchy [vamashrama], which is why he insists on the importance of equal feelings toward all beings.

15 Money is the basis of royal power. Life’s journey is based on it. It is the means of realizing the three aims of life, even in the case of prostitutes.

Money is the basis of material life, which is why it is more important for a king than virtue or pleasure. For prostitutes, money and pleasure are closely connected. It is a king’s duty to accumulate money, inasmuch as it is an instrument of power. For a prostitute, money is essential. She exchanges her body for money. She is an object of desire for the lustful Brahman as well as for the sensual citizen, but she is indifferent to love and ethics. Later on, when she gives up her trade, she lives as she wishes with the money she has put aside.

According to Kautilya, author of the Artha Úàstra, without money there is no virtue, without money, there can be no power. Uncontrolled eroticism leads to failure.

Vàtsyàyana mentions both favorable and contrary opinions to the theses of the Kàma Sùtra.

16 The rules of virtue, which are connected with the spiritual life, can only be known through authoritative texts. The secrets of material success, on the other hand, are a matter of experience, and the texts merely indicate how such experience should be put into practice.

Material success is a matter of accumulating goods. To start with, mistakes may be made, which is why it is useful to have a treatise on economy when in doubt.

As far as moral behavior is concerned, the Taittiriya Aranyaka. defines the virtues connected with supernatural aims, which are:

Courage

The search for truth

Frankness

Listening to religious teachings

Serenity

Self-control

Clemency

Charity

Practicing the rites and worship of the Immense Being, present on earth, in the intermediate world, and in heaven

According to the Småti of Yàjñavalkya, the principles of ethical behavior are expounded in the fourteen annexes to the Vedas, which are: the ancient chronicles (Puranas), the historical narratives (Itihàsa), logic (Nyàya), Yoga, cosmology (Samkhya), ritual (Mimamsa), the moral codes (Dharma Úàstra), medicine (Ayurveda), the analysis of the texts (Shikûa), ritual (Kalpa), grammar (Vyakarana), etymologies (Ninikta), astrology (Jyotisha), and poetics (Chanda).

The field of material success is much wider than that of virtue. Final salvation concerns the soul. Virtue is a matter of discernment (buddhi). Eroticism is connected with the mind (manas). The means of existence are essential for bodily survival. Spirituality and virtue are the privilege of mankind, but no being can live without the means of existence and sexuality, whether man, animal, wild beast, bird, insect, or even plants and trees. For a short time, one can live without erotic practice, but not without the means of subsistence. This predominance of material goods forms part of the divine plan and should be carefully reflected on, since riches acquired dishonestly are an obstacle to spiritual realization. This is the reason for composing treatises regulating the material life. Rules of ethics concern all life’s aspects. With regard to landed property and its upkeep, ancient authors have composed numerous treatises, which have been summarized by Kautilya in his Artha Úàstra, from which Vàtsyàyana took his inspiration. The principal scope of the Artha Úàstra is the art of government (rajaniti), describing all man’s material satisfactions. Economic problems find their solution in the Artha Úàstra.

17 Since eroticism is a universal natural phenomenon, common to all animals, certain authors ask why a treatise on eroticism is needed.

Having demonstrated the usefulness of the texts concerning material success and moral virtues, certain authors raise doubts about the utility of a treatise on eroticism.

They remark that, without having learned it, animals and birds incline to sexuality, which is thus a universal phenomenon. What need is there for directives in such a case?

Since it can be seen that cattle and other animals devoid of discernment have an inclination to eroticism without having received any instruction, is it not the same among mankind in all countries? For this reason, it is said, “Love is learned alone, without being taught by anyone. What teacher do the beasts need to give enjoyment to their partner? Given the compatibility of the partners secretions, erotic desire is universal. It is said that those who want to succeed in life consider incompatibilities before making love. Even when his desire has a particular object, the wise man forgoes becoming attached. Even in the case of affection, the texts warn against realizing an attachment. The sages deem that virtue, interest, and pleasure must be coordinated.

The question of amorous advances will now be dealt with.

18 Given the importance of the preliminary acts [sampra-yoga], man and woman need rules of conduct.

The preliminaries of love often depend on convention. These amorous approaches are of two kinds, according to whether they take place inside the house [ayatana] or outside [anga]. Amorous approaches inside the house take place in the woman’s residence, while those outside take place in the countryside [malya].

Love is easy in gardens, stimulated by beautiful ornaments and beauty products. It takes place within nature, beneath arbors, to the sound of the lute, and so on. It is better for young people, who fear the constrictions of the home and desire to amuse themselves without interruptions or problems.”

Love-play in the home is of two kinds: before witnesses and in private. Love-play practiced in secret permits varied kinds of expression, while the forms practiced in front of witnesses will be described in dealing with love-making.

Love in the garden [anga samprayoga] is when one decides to utilize the garden for sensual pleasures. If the aim is merely to bring together the organs of the senses, the amatory practices are classified as ordinary. If both parties have already had erotic experience, they do as explained above, otherwise nothing happens.

The characteristics of amorous behavior during a first meeting are as follows: If the man and the woman do not desire each other, they are both on the defensive and, from modesty or fear, they do not give themselves to each other. Expedients must then be found. What means has a man ignorant of the sixty-four positions of copulation of achieving the act? If he does not know how to perform, he will not achieve anything with his partner, whether occasional or permanent. It is necessary to know about foreplay.

Those who do not seek to understand the profound mystery of a universal law, present in all things, contest the value of a sacred treatise on eroticism.

Considering that eroticism, copulation (maithuna), is an end in itself, alike for man and beast, certain lawgivers do not see the utility of an erotic treatise. They claim that the Kàma Sùtra only gives rise to ill conduct. This shows that their mind is not very alert and that they seek to impose their own prejudices.

Vatsyayana’s opinion is that knowledge of the Kàma Úàstra is necessary for those that are paralyzed by modesty or fear, or who are dependent on others. To make the couple’s life happy, the sixty-four forms of sexual amusement are necessary. Practice of the arts, which are a means of seduction, is not described in treatises on ethics or politics. This is why Vàtsyàyana explains that the Kàma Úàstra is essential in making marriage agreeable, fruitful, and happy. The aim of the couple’s mating is the highest achievement of pleasure, as well as mutual progress, which is not the case for animals.

The Kàma Úàstra teaches that the final aim of sexual pleasure is spiritual. The development of the transcendent aspect of human love in the couple, together with mutual progress, is not possible for animals, birds or insects. Men who do not understand the ultimate meaning of sexual pleasure behave like animals.

The Kàma Úàstra teaches respect for the union of the sexes. Procreation and problems connected with the sexual organ and copulation merit respect, since they concern the evolution of the human species and cause esteem and affection for the partner, as well as the pursuit of his or her well-being. Without spiritual union between spouses or partners, marriage and love have no meaning. Ignorance of, or scorn for, the rules of the Kàma Úàstra is a source of quarrels, incomprehension, break-up, unfaithfulness, frequenting prostitutes, rape, practices against nature, and bad morals.

19 Through the Kàma Sùtra, Vàtsyàyana defines the approaches to erotic practice.

Among the means taught by the Kàma Sùtra, Vàtsyàyana suggests an exchange of letters, if the girl is of the same caste and well educated.

The Kàma Úàstra defines moral and social rules for the couple. If the couple’s conduct is in accordance with the teachings of the Kàma Sùtra, their life will be a success from an erotic point of view. The partners will always be satisfied with each other and their spirit will not be touched by any desire to be unfaithful.

The Kàma Sùtra teaches that sighs, flirtation, and foreplay are three important elements in amorous relations. There are: three kinds of boy; three classes (jàti) of girl; three sorts of equal copulation (sama); six sorts of unequal copulation; three modes of copulation; nine ways of copulating according to the different modes; nine sorts of copulation according to different moments; making a total of twenty-seven modes of copulation (sambhoga).

During copulation, at what moment and in what way do the man and the woman reach enjoyment?

What problems are faced in a first sexual relation?

What effect does ejaculation have on the woman?

What use are the various positions at the moment of union?

What illness can beset a woman after copulating with an inexpert man?

The Kàma Úàstra gives the answer to all questions that may arise when man and woman unite like milk and water.

This is why the Master explains that an erotic treatise is as important as a treatise on morals or politics.

20 Among animal species with a relatively low level of consciousness, the females, urged on by an unconscious instinct, behave according to their desire when the season arrives.

Female animals are free. Nothing restrains their liberty. They are satisfied in due season. Animals are entirely free to satisfy their erotic desires. However, once their desire is sated, the animals do not begin again. In this, they differ from mankind.

If they have no guardian or protective barrier, women are free. In what way then can a relationship be preserved, since promises serve no purpose. As far as amorous behavior is concerned, the question of trust depends on love, or opportunity. The sages explain that, where there is no protection, there is no other means of controlling sexual relations.

All things arrive in due season. Animals mate when the season comes. Men, too, if they wish for children, wait for the women’s period, allowing their seed to accumulate. It is said, one’s seed must be used at the proper time, otherwise it is wasted. Even when there are clear signs of satiety, people continue to make love. They do not refuse to do it a second time, as though they were not satisfied, and they do not behave in such a way as to indicate that their love-play has finished.

Love born of a common aim requires that the woman be protected, since otherwise, her inclinations will incite her to frequent various men. Since, however, she cannot find this unity of aim elsewhere, the wife who goes with another man can in no way realize her life’s aim. In this connection, it is said, “Happy is the possessor of a single lover. He whose heart goes after other loves kills his family, destroys virtue, loses his fortune, and drifts away from happiness.”

This is why love born from a common aim is a source of happiness for women. The means indicated by Manu for protecting girls from a very young age are housework, the pounding of wheat, etc. By these means, their sexual impulses are kept under control.

Manu recommends that, for their protection, girls should be made to work from their tenderest years. This tames them, like the rope that attaches the elephant to its stake. The author does not mention the lover’s infidelities, which must not be taught by holy writ.

As far as increasing the household with progeny is concerned, questions of ethics and material resources are important. It is not simply a matter of animal nature [pashudharma]. The goal is different.

Without some system of control, it is chance that determines attraction to whomever it may be. Animals do not conform to specified rules and the same goes for men. On the other hand, it is because they know the goal that they bow down before the scriptures.

Vàtsyàyana considers that there is a great difference between a woman of the human species and birds born of animal species. The woman is not free like the birds, nor devoid of discernment. She is tied by the restrictions of family and society. She prizes her reputation and fears moral law. This is why all kinds of obstacles are set to prevent any man in the street from having relations with just any woman.

Man’s nature is not only animal, and he may not follow his desires at will, like a beast. Man must keep his aims before him: virtue, material success, the begetting of sons, and the growth of his family.

Furthermore, animals and birds make no difference between brother and sister, mother and father, etc., and their life as a couple is not for life. For the couple to enjoy a continual life of bliss together, the moral laws laid down in the texts are of great importance.

Those who do not believe in ethics say:

21 Of what use is it to practice virtue, when its results are uncertain?

Doubts arise as to the necessity of ethical behavior [acharana] in matters of virtue, wealth, and love.

There is no good ground for virtuous behavior, since the benefits that might be obtained by it in the future are uncertain. It is doubtful whether they will be obtained. It is said that the results of sacrifices and other rites are not to be had in this world, but in the next. One does not let go what one holds in one’s hand in the hope of having it in the future. Whoever in the world, neglecting the experience of tradition, would eat the fruits of the harvest before they are ripe, because the results of the harvest are doubtful.

In preparing for the yajña and other rites, the efforts required for the preparations are arduous if their goal is not clear. He who hesitates because he does not believe in benefits such as paradise sees no reason to perform these actions and gives it up, uncertain of the result.

Here we have two different points of view, according to whether the benefits involved are in this world or in another.

22 Who, in his right mind, lets drop what he holds in his hand in order to catch a dubious object?

What one holds in one’s own hand is better than what is in someone else’s hand. When the time comes for action, if one enters the forest, one eats whatever is to be found, without postponing it till later. The same goes for the yajña, etc. In saying, “I shall enjoy these fruits in another life,” one postpones one’s enjoyment till later.

23 A pigeon to eat is worth more than a peacock in the sky.

If the pleasure is certain, the dictum indicates the appropriate conduct.

For anyone who wishes to eat meat, the pigeon he already possesses is worth more than the peacock he hopes to snare the next day. In this connection, there is another proverb.

24 According to the materialists [laukayatika], an authentic copper coin is better than a false gold coin.

25 Some people doubt the Scriptures, while they note that magical practices and words sometimes give results. This is why they carefully study the constellations and the movements of the sun, moon, and planets in the hope of obtaining profits of a material order.

Others, however, more inclined to philosophy, whose behavior conforms to the rules of society [varnashrama], during the pilgrimage of this life behave like one who sows the seed he holds in his hand, with a view to a future harvest. Such is the opinion of Vàtsyàyana.

It is not stupid to scatter the seed one holds in one’s hand, in the hope of a future harvest. In the same way, to practice virtuous actions in the hope of heavenly bliss is reasonable, and not useless.

Good conduct concerns the supernatural world, and its practice is defined in the holy books that deal with human values and transcendental realities. But, as we have seen in the case of those that doubt and consider the reality of the invisible world to be an illusion, men, blinded by their desires, are victims of enormous untruths. Men without character whose perverse spirit chooses doubt, wish to believe that, whatever their virtues or vices, everyone attains the same result. For them, not acting according to the Vedas poses no problem. For them, spiritual realization is a field apart, and nothing proves there is any advantage in behaving according to moral law during this life.

Magic is an act of violence. A curse may cause misfortune. However, rites that use magic, such as agnihotra, demonstrate that violence war, etc., although contrary to dharma theories, are also connected with supernatural powers and can lead to heaven. Whatever their efficaciousness, the various schools differ in considering whether or not they are an integral part of the sacred texts.

The signs of the zodiac, the moon, the sun, and the planets, five of which are beneficent, are invisible means of realization. Their influence, which is material and not spiritual, depends on the proximity of their orbits in the constellations. Experts observe the movements of the sun and the planets and note their influence. Their importance must not be exaggerated, however, nor should it be thought that every action in this world depends on them.

Besides religious texts, there are many codes of behavior based on philosophical systems [darshana], tradition, or experience. Their influence on people gives good or bad results in the material or immaterial fields. The material field refers to the abundance or poorness of the harvest, which is evident from the movements of the planets. Immaterial influences concern mishaps, gain and loss, pleasure and pain. Although such influences are evident, their secret cause remains mysterious. Those who, in their business, are always asking themselves, “Must I do this in such a way; do it or leave it?,” live in continual indecision. Unlucky predictions should always be ignored. Virtue averts them and allows them to be rectified. It is said that, “Those who keep themselves prisoners in the cage of the signs of the zodiac and the planets err in their human tasks, since everything that appears good or bad is in reality the result of their former lives.”

Behavior according to function and age is governed by svadharma, the code of individual conduct. The realization of what one is, is the goal of life’s journey. The rules of behavior are composed with a view to future life. Three notions should be contemplated:

He who envisages life as a journey has nothing to lose in following the rules of ethics.

Those who seek material ‘well-being find nothing contrary in them. He who vows not to follow the rules of ethics also meets with difficulties. Not all people have the same way of seeing things and results are therefore often unexpected. This is quite normal, inasmuch as what can be proved and what cannot are closely intermingled.

Vàtsyàyana believes that the holy scriptures transmitted by the sages of old are of divine origin and represent the truth. This is why the reality of ethical law is evident to him.

The influence of the zodiac and the planets is beneficent. In the part of the Vedas dealing with mantras, or magic formulas, we find that:

“The sun is the principle of life (prana) for all living beings. All beings are born of the sun.” The cycle of the equinoxes (vishuvat) and the ecliptic cycle (kranti) have much to do with the body’s structures. In this connection, the Aitareya Brahmana says, “Man is like the equinox, one right half and one left half. He has an upper north side (uttara) just as the equinox has a north side. It is the upper part that speaks, and is the seat of speech. Man’s head forms a whole like the equinox. Individual characteristics are to be found within.”

This text implies that man is only half of his being. Incomplete, he seeks to be whole, to unite with his other half. Alone, man finds no pleasure. “Because alone he had no pleasure at all, he desired to be two.” To play, a partner is needed. This is the law of life. The sacred texts say that so long as a man is not married, he is not complete. So long as the man is not united with the brood female, the transmission of life is impossible.

Human society is based on a functional hierarchy (varnashrama). Vàtsyàyana sees it from a general point of view. He considers that this kind of social division is not peculiar to mankind, but is found everywhere, in everything that exists, whether or not it has consciousness. Whatever is fiery is priest. Whatever is power is warrior. The regents of the world (vishvadeva) are merchants. The solar divinities [nourishers (pusha)] are artisans (shudras). It is these divinities that determine the differences of nature in men and women, and it is according to the same differences of nature that Vàtsyàyana classifies love-play and, to the contrary of what has been said, he denies the importance of material goods.

26 Riches should not be pursued. They do not come to those who make proper effort, but to those who do not deserve them.

Effort does not bring riches. Rites and regular work bring nothing but fortune comes by chance, without logic. Fortune depends on destiny. Since it is without logic, effort serves no purpose. It follows its whim. It appears unexpectedly. This is why the texts that explain the means to acquire it are useless.

27 Everything in this world depends on destiny (kala).

It is destiny that gives material goods. In judging human attempts, it is said:

28 Man’s fortune and ill-fortune depend on destiny, his successes and his reverses, his joys and his sorrows.

29 Destiny made Ball the king of Heaven, destiny was the cause of his downfall: destiny gave him back his place: destiny is the cause of everything that happens.

Time devours all that exists; time destroys peoples; time awakens that which slept. None can escape destiny. Everything is the work of destiny. Destiny is the cause of everything. Even the gods are under its sway. The means of living depend on destiny. Expressing the contrary opinion, Vàtsyàyana says:

30 To succeed in an enterprise, a man needs to make great effort.

Since success in any enterprise is the fruit of hard work, it must be understood that the means employed are the basis of success. Certain men, however, tend to believe that success depends solely on destiny, or perhaps on both. They never succeed in their enterprises, because they forget that means are indispensable. In the final analysis, wealth is the basis of success for any enterprise.

31 Vàtsyàyana says: In order to live, the use of material goods is indispensable. The sluggard will never prosper.

But do the actions of past lives have no influence? It can be seen that both the one and the other bear fruit. However, it is said that, “It is destiny that fructifies man’s actions. Destiny is thus sufficient.”

Vàtsyàyana quotes the legend of Shunahshepa, according to the Aitareya Brahmana: Having taken on human form, Indra made the gift of long life to Rohita, the son of Harishchandra, who would have died young. This shows that fortune can smile on him who makes no effort. Nevertheless, Indra is the friend of him who is always active. “He who is always in movement sees his thighs develop.”

“Heaven does not belong to the weak” (Mundaka Upaniûad).

32 One cannot give oneself over to pleasure without restrictions. One’s activities must be coordinated taking due account of the importance of virtue and material goods.

Eroticism puts man in contact with disreputable people and leads to evil deeds, defilement, ill-fated results.

33 The lewd man is vain. He undergoes humiliations, does not inspire trust, and attracts people’s scorn.

34 It can be observed that those who give themselves over to an exaggerated sexual life destroy themselves as well as their relations.

35 Thus King Dandakya of the line of the Bhojas ruined his life, his family and his kingdom, for having raped the daughter of a Bràhmaóa.

36 Those that reflect on the consequences of our actions remind us that the king of Heaven was destroyed for being enamored of Ahalya, and so it was too for the most powerful Kichaka because of Draupadì, and for Ravana because of Sita. Many others have been destroyed for letting themselves be possessed by Eros.

37 Sexuality is essential for the survival of man, just as food is necessary for bodily health, and on them depend both virtue and wealth.

Having himself posed the questions, Vàtsyàyana also proposes the answer. Since bodily survival depends on it, eroticism is indispensable, like food. Virtue and prosperity depend on them.

Although it can cause indigestion, food must, however, be consumed daily to preserve the body. The same goes for sexuality. The survival of the species cannot be neglected because of errors committed in the madness of erotic excitement.

Virtue and prosperity are the fruit of love. To be happy, virtue and wealth must be sought. Being related, they only give results at the price of great effort. It is said that, “Being the source of virtue, woman is the best means of reaching heaven. Man’s efforts to be virtuous are impossible outside conjugal virtue. If she is able to have sons, a woman brines bliss to this world and the next. There is no doubt but that women are a source of happiness.”

In the preceeding verses, Vàtsyàyana presents arguments suggesting that eroticism degrades man, makes him dependent and pitiful, and finally destroys him entirely. The examples given to support this point of view refer only to material goods. Preoccupations of this kind are also expressed by the authors of the Artha Úàstra. Kautilya advises the king to control his impulses and adds that control over feelings is the basis of wisdom and piety. Control over the senses also refers to contacts, odors, tastes. In his exposition, Kautilya gives the example of King Dandakya of the Bhoja dynasty. Vàtsyàyana takes up the same example. In his reply to the argument, he compares sexuality to food. Although gluttony makes a person sick, food is essential to life. In the same way, although sexuality troubles the mind and poses social problems, it cannot be renounced since it is a natural instinct. Without sexuality, life would disappear.

38 Vàtsyàyana says, “One must put up with risks. But one does not forgo cooking one’s food, fearing that a beggar might come and claim his part, and one does not forgo sowing wheat for fear of wild beasts.”

If one has digestive problems, one seeks a remedy. Inevitably, there are mistakes in erotic practice that one must also try to remedy. This law is valid at all times. One should not deprive oneself of the joys of life for the sake of insignificant details. “Defects must be eliminated,” is the sages’ point of view.

39 It has been said that, “The man accomplished in riches, love, and virtue effortlessly attains the maximum of bliss in this world and the next.”

In this connection, he quotes the words of the ancients. The behavior established according to the rules described by the acients should be followed in all matters of money, virtue, and love.

Certain men would like to attain bliss in this world and the next without effort. In saying, “I wish to achieve painlessly all the aims of life,” the mind is satisfied. But if we do mot seek to achieve the three aims, it will be impossible to achieve even one of them in this world or the next, because we are bound by actions performed previously in former lives, or because of stupidity, and we are thus incapable of following the rules of virtue.

In his indifference, the unbeliever (nastika) does not see that failure in a single sector may create obstacles to the attainment of happiness.

40 Another quotation:

       “Wise men choose ways of acting that allow them to achieve the three aims of life without letting the pursuit of pleasure lead them to ruin.

       “Whether one pursues the three aims, or two, or even one, the achievement of one of them must not be prejudicial to the other two.”

An excess of charity is an obstacle to the fulfilment of duty, to achieving prosperity, and also to erotic realization. An excess of asceticism, which suppresses eroticism by weakening the body, destroys material success. By an exaggerated pursuit of riches, even Pururava came to grief in virtue and love. In the same way, the abuse of erotic practices is prejudicial to the achievement of the other two aims of life.

End of the Second Chapter

The Three Aims of Life

of the First Part entitled General Remarks