Stevia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Stevia (/ˈstiːvɪə/, /ˈstiːvjə/ or /ˈstɛvɪə/) is a sweetener and sugar substitute made from the leaves of the plant species Stevia rebaudiana. Stevia's taste has a slower onset and longer duration than that of sugar, and some of its extracts may have a bitter or licorice-like aftertaste at high concentrations.

With its steviol glycoside extracts having up to 300 times the sweetness of sugar, stevia has attracted attention with the rise in demand for low-carbohydrate, low-sugar sweeteners. Because stevia has a negligible effect on blood glucose it is attractive to people on carbohydrate-controlled diets.

The availability of stevia varies from country to country. In a few countries, it has been available as a sweetener for decades or centuries; for example, it has been widely used for decades as a sweetener in Japan. In some countries health concerns and political controversies have limited its availability; for example, the United States banned stevia in the early 1990s unless labeled as a dietary supplement, but since 2008 it has accepted several specific glycoside extracts as being generally recognized as safe for use as food additives. Over the years, the number of countries in which stevia is available as a sweetener has been increasing. In 2011, stevia was approved for use in the EU.

History and use

The plant Stevia rebaudiana has a long history of ethnomedical use by the Guaraní, having been used extensively by them for more than 1,500 years. The leaves have been traditionally used for hundreds of years in both Brazil and Paraguay to sweeten local teas and medicines, and as a "sweet treat".

Steviol is the basic building block of stevia'ssweet glycosides.

In 1899 Swiss botanist Moisés Santiago Bertoni, while conducting research in eastern Paraguay, first described the plant and the sweet taste in detail. Only limited research was conducted on the topic until in 1931 two French chemists isolated the glycosides that give stevia its sweet taste. These compounds, stevioside and rebaudioside, are 250–300 times as sweet as sucrose and are heat-stable, pH-stable, and not fermentable.

The exact structure of the aglycone and the glycoside was published in 1955.

In the early 1970s, sweeteners such as cyclamate and saccharin were suspected of beingcarcinogens. Consequently, Japan began cultivating stevia as an alternative. The plant's leaves, as well as the aqueous extract of the leaves and purified steviosides, were developed as sweeteners. The first commercial stevia sweetener in Japan was produced by the Japanese firm Morita Kagaku Kogyo Co., Ltd. in 1971. The Japanese have been using stevia in food products and soft drinks, (including Coca Cola), and for table use. Japan currently consumes more stevia than any other country, with stevia accounting for 40% of the sweetener market.

Today, Stevia rebaudiana is cultivated and used to sweeten food elsewhere in East Asia including China (since 1984),Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, and Malaysia. It can also be found in Saint Kitts and Nevis, Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Paraguay,Uruguay, and Israel. China is the world's largest exporter of stevioside.

Stevia rebaudiana plants which are found in the wild in semiarid habitats ranging from grassland to mountain terrain, do produce seeds, but only a small percentage of the seeds germinate. Planting cloned stevia is a more effective method of reproduction.

Folk medicine

For centuries, the Guaraní peoples of Paraguay used Stevia rebaudiana, which they called ka'a he'ê ("sweet herb"), as a sweetener in yerba mate and other foods, and as a medicinal agent.

Availability

The Stevia rebaudianaplant may be grown legally in most countries, although some countries restrict its use as a sweetener.

Stevia tablets as widely sold in health food stores in Germany

Widely used as a sweetener

• Japan (1970)

Available as a food additive (Regulatory agency approved)

• Australia, and New Zealand (October 2008) – All steviol glycoside extracts
• Brazil (1986) – Stevioside extract
• Hong Kong (steviol glycosides, January 2010)^[17]
• Israel (January 2012)
• Mexico (2009) – mixed steviol glycoside extract, not separate extracts
• Norway (June 2012) As food additive – E 960 Steviol glycoside. The plant itself has not been approved as of September 2012
• Russian Federation (2008) – stevioside is allowed in the "minimal dosage required" to achieve the goal of the additive.
• Singapore (2005) steviol glycosides are a permitted sweetening agent in certain foods. Previously it was banned.

Available as both a food additive and dietary supplement

• Canada (November 2012)
  • Steviol glycosides became available as a food additive on 30 November 2012.
  • Stevia rebaudiana leaf and extracts are available as dietary supplements
• European Union – Steviol glycosides have been permitted as a food additive since 2 December 2011.
• United States (December 2008)
  • Rebaudioside A is available (December 2008) as a food additive (sweetener) sold under various trade names.
  • Stevia rebaudiana leaf and extracts are available as dietary supplements(1995)
• Indonesia (2012)
  • Steviol glycosides are available under the Regulation of Minister of Health No. 033 year 2012 on Food Additives)
  • Stevia leaf is available as a dietary supplement

Available (regulatory status unverified)

• Argentina, Chile, China (1984), Colombia, Korea, Malaysia, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Uruguay, and Vietnam

Stevia extract on sale in a supermarket in Paraguay

Availability notes[edit]

• In the United States, rebaudioside A is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) as of December 2008. The leaves and other extracts are available as dietary supplements.
• In Australia and New Zealand, all steviol glycoside extracts were approved in 2008. Prior to 2008, stevia leaves could be sold as food.

Commercialization

Steviol glycosides were first commercialized as a sweetener in 1971 by the Japanese firm Morita Kagaku Kogyo Co., Ltd., a leading stevia extract producer in Japan.

Stevia rebaudiana has been grown on an experimental basis in Ontario, Canada since 1987 to determine the feasibility of commercial cultivation. Duke University researchers developed a strategic plan to assist farmers and exporters in Paraguay to compete in the global market for stevia.

In 2007 The Coca-Cola Company announced plans to obtain approval for their stevia-derived sweetener, rebiana, for use as a food additive within the United States by 2009, as well as plans to market rebiana-sweetened products in 12 countries that allow stevia's use as a food additive. In May 2008 Coca Cola and Cargill announced the availability of Truvia, a consumer brand stevia sweetener containing erythritol and rebiana, which the FDA permitted as a food additive in December 2008. Coca-Cola announced intentions to release stevia-sweetened beverages in late December 2008.

Shortly afterward, PepsiCo and Pure Circle announced PureVia, their brand of stevia-based sweetener, but withheld release of beverages sweetened with rebaudioside A until receipt of FDA confirmation. Since the FDA permitted Truvia and PureVia, both Coca Cola and PepsiCo have introduced products that contain their new sweeteners.

Extraction of sweet compounds

Rebaudioside A has the least bitterness of all the steviol glycosides in the Stevia rebaudiana plant. To produce rebaudioside A commercially, stevia plants are dried and subjected to a water extraction process. This crude extract contains about 50% rebaudioside A; its various glycoside molecules are separated via crystallization techniques, typically using ethanol or methanol as solvent. This allows the manufacturer to isolate pure rebaudioside A.

The National Research Council of Canada has patented a process for extracting sweet compounds from stevia by column extraction at temperatures from 0 to 25 °C, followed by purification by nanofiltration. A microfiltration pretreatment step is used to clarify the extract. Purification is by ultrafiltration followed by nanofiltration.

Mechanism of action

Glycosides are molecules that contain glucose and other non-sugar substances called aglycones (molecules with other sugars are polysaccharides). The tongue's taste receptors react to the glucose in the glycosides – those with more glucose (rebaudioside) taste sweeter than those with less (stevioside). Some of the tongue's bitter receptors react to the aglycones.

In the digestive tract, rebaudiosides are metabolised into stevioside. Then stevioside is broken down into glucose andsteviol. The glucose released in this process is used by bacteria in the colon and not absorbed into the bloodstream. Steviol cannot be further digested and is excreted.

Safety

Steviol and rebaudioside A are not mutagenic at doses and routes of administration at which humans are exposed to them. Two 2010 review studies found no health concerns with stevia or its sweetening extracts.

The WHO's Joint Experts Committee on Food Additives has approved, based on long-term studies, an acceptable daily intake of steviol glycoside of up to 4 milligrams per kilogram of body weight.

While the FDA does not consider whole-leaf Stevia or crude Stevia extracts to be "generally recognized as safe" ("GRAS")food additives, several companies have submitted notices to the FDA that they consider specific rebaudiosides to be GRAS for use as food additives, and have had these notices accepted by the FDA.

The European Food Safety Authority evaluated the safety of steviol glycosides, extracted from the leaves of the Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni plant, as sweetener and expressed its opinion on 10 March 2010. The Authority established an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) for steviol glycosides, expressed as steviol equivalents, of 4 mg/kg bodyweight/day. On 11 November 2011, the European Commission allowed the usage of steviol glycosides as a food additive, establishing maximum content levels for different types of foods and beverages.

Potential health effects

A 2009 review study found that stevioside and related compounds may have anti-hyperglycemic, anti-hypertensive, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-diarrheal, diuretic, and immunomodulatory actions. A 2011 review found that the use of stevia sweeteners as replacements for sugar would likely benefit diabetic patients. Furthermore, the report noted "stevioside has shown some evidence of pharmacological effects in patients with hypertension or with diabetes mellitus type 2," but concluded further study was required to determine proper dosage.

Controversy

In 1991, after receiving an anonymous industry complaint, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) labeled stevia as an "unsafe food additive" and restricted its import. The FDA's stated reason was "toxicological information on stevia is inadequate to demonstrate its safety."

Since the import ban in 1991, marketers and consumers of stevia have shared a belief that the FDA acted in response to industry pressure. Arizona congressman Jon Kyl, for example, called the FDA action against stevia "a restraint of trade to benefit the artificial sweetener industry". To protect the complainant, the FDA deleted names in the original complaint in its responses to requests filed under the Freedom of Information Act.

Stevia remained banned until after the 1994 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act forced the FDA in 1995 to revise its stance to permit stevia to be used as a dietary supplement, although not as a food additive – a position that stevia proponents regarded as contradictory because it simultaneously labels stevia as safe and unsafe, depending on how it is sold.

Early studies prompted the European Commission in 1999 to ban stevia's use in food in the European Union pending further research. In 2006, research data compiled in the safety evaluation released by the World Health Organization found no adverse effects. Since 2008, the Russian Federation has allowed stevioside as a food additive "in the minimal dosage required".

In December 2008, the FDA gave a "no objection" approval for GRAS status to Truvia (developed by Cargill and The Coca-Cola Company) and PureVia (developed by PepsiCo and the Whole Earth Sweetener Company, a subsidiary of Merisant), both of which use rebaudioside A derived from the Stevia plant. However, FDA said that these products are not Stevia, but a highly purified product. In 2012, FDA posted a note on their website regarding crude Stevia plant: "FDA has not permitted the use of whole-leaf Stevia or crude Stevia extracts because these substances have not been approved for use as a food additive. FDA does not consider their use in food to be GRAS in light of reports in the literature that raise concerns about the use of these substances. Among these concerns are control of blood sugar and effects on the reproductive, cardiovascular, and renal systems."

Almond

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Almond
Almond tree with ripening fruit.Majorca, Spain.
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Rosids
Order:	Rosales
Family:	Rosaceae
Genus:	Prunus
Subgenus:	Amygdalus
Species:	P. dulcis
Binomial name
Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb
Synonyms
Prunus amygdalus Batsch

The almond (/ˈælmənd/) (Prunus dulcis, syn. Prunus amygdalus, Amygdalus communis,Amygdalus dulcis) (or badam in Indian English, from Persian: بادام‎) is a species of tree native to the Middle East and South Asia. "Almond" is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree. Within the genus Prunus, it is classified with the peachin the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated shell (endocarp) surrounding the seed.

The fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed (which is not a true nut) inside. Shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed. Almonds are sold shelled (i.e., after the shells are removed), orunshelled (i.e., with the shells still attached). Blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat, which is then removed to reveal the white embryo.

Tree

Almond blossoms with its fruit inTudeshg, Isfahan, Iran

The almond is a deciduous tree, growing 4–10 m (13–33 ft) in height, with a trunk of up to 30 cm (12 in) in diameter. The young twigs are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their second year. The leaves are 3–5 inches long, with a serrated margin and a 2.5 cm (1 in) petiole. The flowers are white to pale pink, 3–5 cm (1–2 in) diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs and appearing before the leaves in early spring.Almonds begin bearing an economic crop in the third year after planting. Trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting. The fruit matures in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering.

Drupe

'Fitas' almonds from Ibiza

• 

  Green almonds
 
• 

  Unshelled (left) and shelled (right) almonds
 
• 

  Blanched almonds

The almond fruit measures 3.5–6 cm (1–2 in) long. In botanical terms, it is not a nut, but a drupe. The outer covering or exocarp, fleshy in other members of Prunus such as the plum and cherry, is instead a thick, leathery, grey-green coat (with a downy exterior), called the hull. Inside the hull is a reticulated, hard, woody shell (like the outside of a peach pit) called the endocarp. Inside the shell is the edible seed, commonly called a nut. Generally, one seed is present, but occasionally two occur.

Origin and history

Harvesting of the almond crop at Qand-i Badam,Fergana Valley (16th century)^[5]

The almond is native to the Mediterranean climate region of the Middle East, eastward as far as the Indus. In India, it is known as badam. It was spread by humans in ancient times along the shores of the Mediterranean into northern Africa and southern Europe and more recently transported to other parts of the world, notably California, United States.

A grove of almond trees in central California

The wild form of domesticated almond grows in parts of the Levant; almonds must first have been taken into cultivation in this region. The fruit of the wild forms contains the glycoside amygdalin, "which becomes transformed into deadly prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) after crushing, chewing, or any other injury to the seed."

Wild almonds are bitter, the kernel produces deadly cyanide upon mechanical handling, and eating even a few dozen at one sitting can be fatal. Selection of the sweet type, from the many bitter types in wild, marked the beginning of almond domestication. How humans selected the sweet type remains a mystery. It is unclear as to which wild ancestor of the almond created the domesticated species. Ladizinsky suggests the taxon Amygdalus fenzliana (Fritsch) Lipsky is the most likely wild ancestor of the almond in part because it is native of Armenia and western Azerbaijan where it was apparently domesticated.

While wild almond species are toxic, domesticated almonds are not; Jared Diamond argues that a common genetic mutation causes an absence of glycoside amygdalin, and this mutant was grown by early farmers, "at first unintentionally in the garbage heaps, and later intentionally in their orchards". Zohary and Hopf believe that almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees due to "the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed. Thus, in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend itself to propagation from suckers or from cuttings, it could have been domesticated even before the introduction of grafting". Domesticated almonds appear in the Early Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC) such as the archaeological sites of Numeria (Jordan), or possibly a little earlier. Another well-known archaeological example of the almond is the fruit found in Tutankhamun's tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 BC), probably imported from the Levant. Of theEuropean countries that the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh reported as cultivating almonds, Germany is the northernmost, though the domesticated form can be found as far north as Iceland.

Etymology and names

The word "almond" comes from Old French almande or alemande, Late Latin *amandula, derived through a form amygdalafrom the Greek ἀμυγδαλή (amygdalē) (cf. amygdala), an almond. The al- in English, for the a- used in other languages may be due a confusion with the Arabic article al, the word having first dropped the a- as in the Italian form mandorla; the British pronunciation ah-mond and the modern Catalan ametlla and modern French amande show a form of the word closer to the original. Other related names of almond include Mandel or Knackmandel (German), mandorlo (Italian), amêndoa(Portuguese), and almendro (Spanish).

The adjective "amygdaloid" (literally "like an almond") is used to describe objects which are roughly almond-shaped, particularly a shape which is part way between a triangle and an ellipse. See, for example, the brain structure amygdala, which uses a direct borrowing of the Greek term amygdalē.

Production

An almond shaker before and during a harvest of a tree

The world produced 2.00 million tonnes of almonds in 2011 according to Food and Agriculture Organization, with United States the largest producer at 0.73 million tonnes. The apparent 50% decrease in production by the United States led to a calculated percent of world production decrease from 56% to 36%; however, a 2013 news article indicated that the United States produced at least 80% of the world's supply.

Top Ten Almond with Shell Producers in 2010, with 2011 data
Country	Production 2010, 2011 (million tonnes)	Yields 2010, 2011 (ton/hectare)
USA	1.41  0.73	4.85  4.50
Spain	0.22  0.21	0.40  0.40
Iran	0.16  0.17	2.97  1.91
Italy	0.11  0.10	1.26  1.39
Morocco	0.10  0.13	0.98  1.52
Syria	0.073  0.13	1.49  2.52
Afghanistan	0.056  0.061	5.00  4.50
Turkey	0.055  0.070	3.23  3.41
Tunisia	0.052  0.061	0.32  0.32
Algeria	0.039  0.050	1.16  1.80
World Total	2.51  2.00	1.62  1.27

Spain has one of the most diverse commercial cultivars of almonds.^[17] It is grown in Spain's Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, the Balearic Islands, Andalusia, and Aragón regions. In Greece, most of the production comes from the region of Magnesiaat the area of Almyros. The most cultivating types of almonds in Greece are ferragnes and Texas (mission) which are known for their sweet taste and premium quality. Because of its quality, it is used as a luxury nut. In Turkey, most of the production comes from the Aegean, Marmara, and Mediterranean regions.

In the United States, production is concentrated inCalifornia, with almonds being California's third leading agricultural product, its top agricultural export in 2008, and 100% of the U.S. commercial supply. The United States is the dominant supplier of almonds. In 2011, the country exported about 637,000 metric tons, valued at US$2.8 billion. Almonds were mostly exported as shelled almonds (70%), with the remainder being either unshelled or processed.

Australia is the largest almond production region in the southern hemisphere. In 2013, Australia contributed to 5.9% of the world almond supply. Most of the almond orchards are located in the states of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. 

In 2013 and 2014, environmental problems in California affected the almond supply, contributing to higher almond prices worldwide. 

Pollination

Young almond fruit

Mature almond fruit

The pollination of California's almonds is the largest annualmanaged pollination event in the world, with close to one million hives (nearly half of all beehives in the USA) being trucked in February to the almond groves. Much of the pollination is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory beekeepers from at least 49 states for the event. This business has been heavily impacted by colony collapse disorder, causing nationwide shortages of honey bees and increasing the price of insect pollination. To alleviate almond growers from the rising cost of insect pollination, researchers at the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) have developed a new line of self-pollinating almond trees. Self-pollinating almond trees, such as the 'Tuono', have been around for a while, but their harvest is not as desirable as the insect-pollinated California 'Nonpareil' almond tree. The 'Nonpareil' tree produces large, smooth almonds and offers 60–65% edible kernel per nut. The 'Tuono', however, has thicker, hairier shells and offers only 32% of edible kernel per nut, but having a thick shell has advantages. The 'Tuono’s' shell protects the nut from threatening pests such as the navel orangeworm. ARS researchers have managed to cross-breed the pest-resistant 'Tuono' tree with the 'Nonpareil', resulting in hybridized varieties of almond trees that are self-pollinated and maintain a high nut quality. The new, self-pollinating hybrids possess quality skin color, flavor, and oil content, and reduce almond growers’ dependency on insect pollination.

Diseases

Almond trees can be attacked by an array of damaging organisms, including insects, fungal pathogens, plant viruses and bacteria. Symptoms can vary depending on the organism attacking the plant.

Sweet and bitter almonds

Flowering (sweet) almond tree

Blossom on bitter almond tree

The seeds of Prunus dulcis var. dulcis are predominantly sweet, but some individual trees produce seeds that are somewhat more bitter. The genetic basis for bitterness involves a single gene, the bitter flavour furthermore being recessive, both aspects making this trait easier to domesticate. The fruits fromPrunus dulcis var. amara are always bitter as are the kernels from other Prunusspecies like apricot, peach and cherry (to a lesser extent).

The bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond, and contains about 50% of the fixed oil that occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains the enzyme emulsin which, in the presence of water, acts on soluble glucosides,amygdalin and prunasin, yielding glucose, cyanide and the essential oil of bitter almonds, which is nearly pure benzaldehyde. Bitter almonds may yield from 4–9 mg of hydrogen cyanide per almond. Extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally, but even in small doses, effects are severe, and in larger doses can be deadly; the cyanide must be removed before consumption.

All commercially grown almonds sold as food in the United States are of the "sweet" variety. However, The US Food and Drug Administration reported in 2010 that some fractions of imported sweet almonds were contaminated with bitter almonds. Eating such almonds could result in vertigo and other typical bitter almond (cyanide) poisoning effects.

Certain health food stores sell "bitter almonds," or "apricot kernels," labeled as such.

Culinary uses

Smoked and salted almonds

While the almond is often eaten on its own, raw or toasted, it is also a component of various dishes. Almonds are available in many forms, such as whole, sliced (flaked, slivered), and as flour. Almonds yield almond oil and can also be made into almond butter or almond milk. These products can be used in both sweet and savoury dishes.

Along with other nuts, almonds can be sprinkled over breakfasts and desserts, particularly muesli or ice cream-based dishes. Almonds are used in marzipan,nougat, many pastries (including jesuites), cookies (including French macarons,macaroons), and cakes (including financiers), noghl, and other sweets and desserts. They are also used to make almond butter, a spread similar to peanut butter, popular with peanut allergy sufferers and for its naturally sweeter taste. The young, developing fruit of the almond tree can be eaten whole ("green almonds") when they are still green and fleshy on the outside and the inner shell has not yet hardened. The fruit is somewhat sour, but is a popular snack in parts of the Middle East,eaten dipped in salt to balance the sour taste. Also in the Middle East they are often eaten with dates. They are available only from mid-April to mid-June in the Northern Hemisphere; pickling or brining extends the fruit's shelf life.

For dessert, almond cookies, Chinese almond biscuits, and Italian ricciarelli use almonds.

Bottle for a cream of almond liquor from Mexico (beginning of 20th century) from the permanent collection of the Museo del Objeto del Objeto

Marzipan is a popular almond meal-based confection. It is artistically shaped into festive motifs, figures, and fruit shapes such as those shown above in a Paris shop.

• In Greece, ground blanched almonds are used as the base material in a great variety of desserts, usually called amygdalota (αμυγδαλωτά). Because of their white colour, most are traditionally considered "wedding sweets" and are served at wedding banquets. In addition, a soft drink known as soumada is made from almonds in various regions.

• In Iran, green almonds are dipped in sea salt and eaten as snacks on street markets; they are called chaqale bâdam. Also sweet almonds are used to prepare a special food for babies, named harire badam. Almonds are added to some foods, cookies, and desserts, or are used to decorate foods. People in Iran consume roasted nuts for special events, for example, during New Year parties.

• In Italy, the bitter almonds from apricots are the base for amaretti^[35][36] (almond macaroons), a common dessert. Traditionally, a low percentage of bitter almonds (10-20%) is added to the ingredients, which gives the cookies their bitter taste (commercially, apricot kernels are used as a substitute for bitter almonds). Almonds are also a common choice as the nuts to include intorrone. In Puglia and Sicily, pasta di mandorle (almond paste) is used to make small soft cakes, often decorated with jam, pistachio, or chocolate. In Sicily, almond milk is a popular refreshing beverage in summer.

• In Morocco, almonds in the form of sweet almond paste are the main ingredient in pastry fillings, and several other desserts. Fried blanched whole almonds are also used to decorate sweet tajines such as lamb with prunes. A drink made from almonds mixed with milk is served in important ceremonies such as weddings and can also be ordered in some cafes. Southwestern Berber regions of Essaouira and Souss are also known foramlou, a spread made of almond paste, argan oil, and honey. Almond paste is also mixed with toasted flour and among others, honey, olive oil or butter, anise, fennel, sesame seeds, and cinnamon to make sellou (also called zamita in Meknes or slilou inMarrakech), a sweet snack known for its long shelf life and high nutritive value.

• In Indian cuisine, almonds are the base ingredients of pasanda-style curries. Badam halvais a sweet made from almonds with added coloring. Almond flakes are added to many sweets (such as sohan barfi), and are usually visible sticking to the outer surface.

• In Pakistani cuisine, almonds are the base ingredients of many food items. Meat dishes containing almonds include pasanda-style or Mughalai curries. Badam halva is a sweet made from almonds with added coloring. Almond flakes are added to many sweets (such as sohan barfi), and are usually visible sticking to the outer surface. Almonds form the base of various drinks which are supposed to have cooling properties. Almond sherbet orsherbet-e-badaam in Urdu, is a popular summer drink. Almonds are also sold as a snack with added salt.

Almonds can be processed into a milk substitute called almond milk; the nut's soft texture, mild flavour, and light colouring (when skinned) make for an efficient analog to dairy, and a soy-free choice for lactose intolerant people and vegans. Raw, blanched, and lightly toasted almonds work well for different production techniques, some of which are similar to that of soymilk and some of which use no heat, resulting in "raw milk" (see raw foodism).

The 'Marcona' almond cultivar is recognizably different from other almonds, and is marketed by name. The kernel is short, round, relatively sweet, and delicate in texture. It has been grown in Spain for a long time and its origin is unknown; the tree is very productive, and the shell of the nut is very hard. 'Marcona' almonds are traditionally served after being lightly fried in oil, and are used by Spanish chefs to prepare a dessert called turrón.

Almond flour

Almond flour is often used as a gluten-free alternative to wheat flour in cooking and baking.

Almond syrup

Historically, almond syrup was an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds, usually made with barley syrup (orgeat syrup) or in a syrup of orange flower water and sugar.

The Grocer's Encyclopedia (1911) noted, "Ten parts of sweet almonds are generally employed to three parts of bitter almonds"; however, due to the cyanide found in bitter almonds, modern syrups generally consist of only sweet almonds.

Nutrition

Almonds

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	2,408 kJ (576 kcal)
Carbohydrates	21.69 g
Starch	0.74 g
Sugars lactose	3.89 g 0.00 g
Dietary fiber	12.2 g
Fat	49.42 g
Saturated	3.731 g
Monounsaturated	30.889 g
Polyunsaturated	12.070 g
Protein	21.22 g
Tryptophan	0.214 g
Threonine	0.598 g
Isoleucine	0.702 g
Leucine	1.488 g
Lysine	0.580 g
Methionine	0.151 g
Cystine	0.189 g
Phenylalanine	1.120 g
Tyrosine	0.452 g
Valine	0.817 g
Arginine	2.446 g
Histidine	0.557 g
Alanine	1.027 g
Aspartic acid	2.911 g
Glutamic acid	6.810 g
Glycine	1.469 g
Proline	1.032 g
Serine	0.948 g
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv. beta-carotene lutein zeaxanthin	(0%) 1 μg 1 μg
Vitamin A	1 IU
Thiamine (B1)	(18%) 0.211 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	(85%) 1.014 mg
Niacin (B3)	(23%) 3.385 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)	(9%) 0.469 mg
Vitamin B6	(11%) 0.143 mg
Folate (B9)	(13%) 50 μg
Choline	(11%) 52.1 mg
Vitamin E	(175%) 26.2 mg
Vitamin K	(0%) 0.0 μg
Trace metals
Calcium	(26%) 264 mg
Iron	(29%) 3.72 mg
Magnesium	(75%) 268 mg
Manganese	(109%) 2.285 mg
Phosphorus	(69%) 484 mg
Potassium	(15%) 705 mg
Sodium	(0%) 1 mg
Zinc	(32%) 3.08 mg
Other constituents
Water	4.70 g
Link to USDA Database entry
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated usingUS recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

The almond is a nutritionally dense food and is a rich source of vitamin E, containing 26 mg per 100 g. They are also rich in dietary fiber, B vitamins,essential minerals such as magnesium, copper, manganese, calcium, andpotassium as well as monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats (see nutrient table), fats which potentially may lower LDL cholesterol. Typical of nuts and seeds, almonds also contain phytosterols such as Beta-sitosterol,stigmasterol, campesterol, sitostanol, and campestanol, which have been associated with cholesterol-lowering properties. Potential health benefits, which have not been scientifically validated, include improved complexion and possibly a lower risk of cancer. Preliminary research associates consumption of almonds with elevated blood levels of high density lipoproteinsand lower low density lipoproteins. A preliminary trial showed that including almonds in a daily diet might lower several factors associated with heart disease, including cholesterol and blood lipids.

Almonds contain polyphenols in their skins consisting in a combination offlavonols, flavan-3-ols, hydroxybenzoic acids and flavanones analogous to those of certain fruits and vegetables.

The almond contains about 26% carbohydrates (12% dietary fiber, 6.3% sugars, 0.7% starch and the rest miscellaneous carbohydrates), and may therefore be made into flour for cakes and cookies (biscuits) for low-carbohydrate diets. A standard serving of almond flour, 1 cup, contains 20 grams of carbohydrates, of which 10 g is dietary fiber. This makes almond flour very desirable for use in cake and bread recipes by people on carbohydrate-restricted diets.

Almonds may cause allergy or intolerance. Cross-reactivity is common withpeach allergens (lipid transfer proteins) and tree nut allergens. Symptoms range from local symptoms (e.g., oral allergy syndrome, contact urticaria) to systemic symptoms including anaphylaxis (e.g., urticaria, angioedema, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms).^[43]

During the digestion process in humans, almond flour has demonstrated the ability to be fermented into SCFAs, most notably butyrate, which has been shown to have a positive effect on the cells lining the colon. 

Oils

Almond oil in a clear glass vial

Almonds are a rich source of oil, with values ranging between 36 to 60% of kernel dry mass. A study by Venkatchalam and Sathe suggests almonds contain approximately 44% oils, of which 62% is monounsaturated oleic acid (anomega-9 fatty acid), 29% is linoleic acid (a polyunsaturated omega-6 essential fatty acid), and 9% is saturated fatty acid.

"Oleum amygdalae", the fixed oil, is prepared from either sweet or bitter almonds and is a glyceryl oleate, with a slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in alcohol but readily soluble inchloroform or ether. Sweet almond oil is obtained from the dried kernel of sweet almonds.

The oil is good for application to the skin as an emollient, and has been traditionally used by massage therapists to lubricate the skin during a massage session.

Almond oil can also be used as a wood conditioner of certain woodwind instruments, such as the oboe and clarinet.

Aflatoxins

Almonds, like other tree nuts, are susceptible to aflatoxin-producing molds.Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by molds such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. The mold contamination may occur from soil, previously infested almonds, and almond pests such as navel orangeworm. High levels of mold growth typically appear as gray to black filament like growth. It is unsafe to eat mold infected tree nuts.

Some countries have strict limits on allowable limits for aflatoxin contamination on almonds, and require adequate testing before the nuts can be marketed to their citizens. The European Union, for example, introduced a mandatory requirement since 2007 that all almond shipments to EU must be tested for aflatoxin. If aflatoxin does not meet the strict safety regulations, the entire consignment may be reprocessed to eliminate the aflatoxin or it must be destroyed.

The almond industry not only tests and processes almonds to ensure infected almonds do not reach the market, the industry also takes steps to prevent sources that cause contamination. These steps include proper orchard management, winter sanitation, early harvest, proper storage among others.

Mandatory pasteurization in California

The USDA approved a proposal by the Almond Board of California to pasteurize almonds sold to the public, after tracing cases of salmonellosis to almonds. The almond pasteurization program became mandatory for California companies in 2007. Raw, untreated California almonds have not been available in the U.S. since then.

California almonds labeled "raw" must be steam-pasteurized or chemically treated with propylene oxide. This does not apply to imported almonds or almonds sold from the grower directly to the consumer in small quantities. The treatment also isn't required for raw almonds sold for export outside of North America.

The Almond Board of California claims “PPO residue dissipates after treatment”; however, the EPA reports “Propylene oxide has been detected in fumigated food products; consumption of contaminated food is another possible route of exposure.” PPO is classified by the EPA as a “Group B2, probable human carcinogen.”

The USDA-approved marketing order was challenged in court by organic farmers organized by the Cornucopia Institute, a Wisconsin-based farm policy research group. According to the Cornucopia Institute, this almond marketing order has imposed significant financial burdens on small-scale and organic growers and damaged domestic almond markets. A federal judge dismissed the lawsuit in the spring of 2009 on procedural grounds. In August 2009 farmers were appealing.

Cultural aspects

The almond is highly revered in some cultures. The tree originated in the Middle East, and is mentioned numerous times in the Bible.

In the Hebrew Bible, the almond was a symbol of watchfulness and promise due to its early flowering. In the Bible the almond is mentioned ten times, beginning with Book of Genesis 43:11, where it is described as "among the best of fruits". InNumbers 17 Levi is chosen from the other tribes of Israel by Aaron's rod, which brought forth almond flowers. According to tradition, the rod of Aaron bore sweet almonds on one side and bitter on the other; if the Israelites followed the Lord, the sweet almonds would be ripe and edible, but if they were to forsake the path of the Lord, the bitter almonds would predominate. The almond blossom supplied a model for the menorah which stood in the Holy Temple, "Three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on one branch, with a knob and a flower; and three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on the other...on the candlestick itself were four cups, shaped like almond blossoms, with its knobs and flowers" (Exodus 25:33–34; 37:19–20). Similarly, Christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the Virgin Birth of Jesus; paintings often include almonds encircling the baby Jesus and as a symbol of Mary. The word "Luz", which appears in Genesis 30:37, is sometimes translated as "hazel", may actually be derived from the Aramaic name for almond (Luz), and is translated as such in some Bible versions such as the NIV. The Arabic name for almond is "laoz". In some parts of the Levant it is pronounced "loz", which is very close to its Aramaic origin.