The Conduct of the Well-bred Townsman

Kama Sutra - Part One 

Chapter Four: The Conduct of the Well-bred Townsman

1 Having completed his studies and acquired the means of livelihood by gifts received, conquest, trade, and work, or else by inheritance, or both and, having married, the well-bred townsman [nagaraka] must settle down in a refined manner.

In order to establish himself, a Bràhmaóa acquires assets through gifts; a noble [kûatriya] by arms and conquest; a merchant [vaishya] by trade; a worker [úùdra] by hard work and service. The way of life recommended by Vdtsydyana is not for the penniless and applies to all four castes.

2 He must establish himself in a big city, a town, or even a large village, near the mountains, where a decent number of persons of good society are living. He may also, for a tune, go journeying.

3 He must build himself a house with two separate apartments, on a site near water, with trees and a garden and a separate place of work.

4 The antechamber, outside the private apartments, must be vast, pleasant, with a wide divan in the center covered with a white cloth. Close to this great bed, another similar one shall be placed, for the games of love.

At the head of this bed, on a table only slightly taller, are placed a bunch of sacred herbs to attract the gods’ protection, beauty products, ointments, flower necklaces, incense sticks, pots of scent, and citrus and betel leaves.

On the floor, close to the couch, a spittoon must be placed for betel and, on a cushion, an ivory-encrusted vìóà, drawing materials and accessories, illustrated books, and necklaces of yellow amaranth flowers, which do not fade quickly. Not far, on the ground, is spread a pretty round rug, behind which are cushions and large bolsters to support the head and back, which is practical for playing at dice and other gambling games. Outside the antechamber cages of tame birds are fixed to the walls, and a little way off, a place for urinating and other needs. Swings are installed in the garden and flowery arbors, in which benches are placed.

This completes the appointments of the antechamber of the house. Those who frequent prostitutes must have two beds. Respectable people and scholars must not be made to sit where the master of the house amuses himself with girls.

At the head of the bed there should be a mirror and, on shelves, sandalwood, flowers, necklaces, and ointments should be arranged, as well as the ingredients for preparing betel. Sometimes, during the night, the woman lying in one’s arms emits a smell of sweat and does not hold her evil-smelling wind. Cardamom and citron peel should be pounded to combat bad smells. Nearby, covered with a cloth, a vìóà, encrusted with ivory, and colors and tools for drawing, as well as necklaces of kurantaka flowers, which have no scent but are useful for decoration, since they do not fade quickly. On the veranda facing the courtyard are placed cages with parrots, quails, partridges, and fighting cocks.

The description of the inner courtyard is similar to the one described in the Måchakatika. When the thief Charvilaka breaks into Charudatta’s house, he thinks he has entered a theater. Scattered all around are vìóàs, drums, percussion instruments, here and there books, pictures, drawings. For the townsman with a sensitive heart, the vìóà and drawing implements are as precious as life itself.

Vàtsyàyana gives an extremely vivid description of the entrance hall but does not describe the inner apartments. He only speaks of the lianas, arbors, and swings of the inner garden, which belongs to the harem.

In poems like Kàdambarì, wonderful descriptions are given of the inner rooms. Raja Chandrapida, when he penetrated into the inner apartment, was dumbfounded by the realism of the frescos covering the walls, depicting imaginary landscapes. The ceiling was covered with representations of the genies of knowledge, the Vidyàdharas. White cushions were lying on the blue-draped bed. Painters were highly honored, and frescos in houses were considered to bring good luck. At the same time, the house contained all the implements, colors, etc., for drawing, practiced by the women on ivory, wood, or cloth.

5 A well-bred townsman gets up very early in the morning, performs his natural functions, and cleans his teeth. Having carefully washed his face, he rubs it with ointment and marks the sacred signs on his brow, using sandalwood. He dyes his hair, using wax and lacquer, while looking at himself in a mirror. Then, having eaten some betel, he places a necklace of scented flowers around his neck, after which he begins his daily routine.

6 He must bathe every day, have a massage every two days, soap himself every three days. Every four days, he must trim his beard and moustache, on the fifth or tenth day shave his pubic hair and armpits and, always, scent himself to disguise the smell of sweat from the armpits and be pleasant to contact.

One must bathe every day before taking food. The lower part of the body must be washed with soap, otherwise the skin is not soft.

A beard should be cut into three points. It is not fitting to separate it in two. However, some citizens do otherwise, according to fashion. Body hair should be shaved by a barber. The pubic area should always be free, since sexual activity causes sweat. The piece of cloth [cache-sexe] would also be changed frequently to avoid bad odor and irritation.

It appears that, according to the Kàma Sùtra, the townsmen were not parsimonious as concerns knowledge and the arts. With regard to daily routine, the townsman had his servants prepare a mixture of scented ingredients, a week in advance, for washing his teeth. First sandalwood powder wasmixed with cow urine, in which the sticks used for brushing the teeth were soaked for seven days. They were then dipped in a paste made of cardamom, cinnamon, anjana (Hardivickia binata) honey, and I black pepper. These sticks, used to clean the teeth, were also considered lucky. Great care was taken in utilizing sticks from a special tree, gathered according to the days of the moon. The priests and servants would keep the master informed about it.

Massage is usually performed with sandalwood. Other products used are musk, saffron, and aloes, mixed with cream. According to the medical treatises, these ointments make the skin supple and luminous.

For the hair, lotions are used to keep it in place, to disguise white hairs, and make the hair shiny and soft.

Varahamihira, in his Grihya Saýhità, says that “even dressed with sumptuous garments, wearing scented necklaces, and covering the limbs with sparkling jewels, if the hair is white, all these ornaments lose their attraction.” For hair treatment, the hair is smeared with camphor, saffron, and musk for a few moments, after which a bath is taken. Once his hair is done, the townsman puts on a necklace of flowers, which he chooses carefully according to season, but most often of yellow champa flowers (Michelia champaka), of jasmine (malati), and of juhi (white ixora). For moments of amorous dalliance, garlands of yellow amaranth flowers are recommended, since they do not fall during caressing, kissing, or hugging.

He cleans his feet with a damp cloth, and then puts red lacquer on the soles of his feet and around the nails. He then looks at himself in a polished mirror and chews betel. Betel is the hallmark of a civilized person. It is also a sign of welcome, when offered, even to the gods. After taking betel, the townsman attends to his daily business.

Vàtsyàyana does not describe how to take a bath, but a description is to be found in the Kàdambarì. “Having finished his business, a little before noon, before taking his bath, the townsman chats for a few moments with his friends, then, having performed a little exercise, he enters the bathroom where there is a marble table-seat with gold or silver vessels nearby filled with water scented with various ingredients. First, the townsman sits on a soft towel and his servants perfume him and massage his head. Then his body is massaged for several moments with scented oil, after which he plunges into the pool. He then sits on the marble table to wash himself and his assistants pour the scented water over him. The townsman is then soaped, after which he dresses again, winding a thin muslin strip like a snake’s skin around his hair. Then he goes to the domestic shrine for the daily rites.

“Nails may be cut to a point or in a half-moon shape. The people of Gaura keep their nails very long, those in the south short and square, while in the north people consider nails of a medium length to be more elegant.”

Vàtsyàyana recommends cutting the hair every four days. The Atharva Veda recommends knotting the hair. The sages of old wore their hair long. Some knot it at the back of the head, others on the forehead, others on top. These texts mention various hairstyles for women, parrot-style, four plaits, with a fringe, etc.

In the Rig Veda, the sages wear their hair knotted on the right. The gods Indra and Pùûan have moustaches.

The Taittirìya Saýhità considers that beard and moustache are signs of virility.

Varahamihira explains that betel embellishes and perfumes the mouth, softens the voice, renders one more attractive, improves and brings luck in adventures. It cures coughs and other sicknesses.

The Skanda Puràóa describes various kinds of betel. The preparation of betel is considered a fine art. According to Varahamihira, the ingredients of betel are cardamom, catechu (kattha), lime (chuna) and betel nut (supari), to which other ingredients may be added.

Some texts consider that the hair, beard, and body hair should be shaved at full moon, leaving only a lock on the top of the head. There are different opinions with regard to keeping one’s hair and beard or not. Traditionally, all hair should be eliminated, but some people believe that keeping hair and beard prolongs life.

7 Two main meals should be taken each day, in the morning and in the evening before nightfall.

The morning is divided into three periods according to one’s occupation. One eats in the fourth period, after bathing. Eating again in the afternoon, during the fifth period, is not recommended by masters. It is advised to take a meal at the end of the day, but not if one has eaten in the afternoon. It is said, “If one’s digestion has not finished, whatever one eats here and there is not assimilated. However, men who do not eat in the evening become weak.”

8 After meals, quiet amusements are necessary, such as teaching mynah birds and parrots to talk, watching partridges, cocks, or rams fighting, and playing all kinds of games, subsequently conversing with the manager [pìtha-marda], one’s comrade in pleasure [vita], and the facetious secretary, before having one’s siesta.

After the midday meal, and after chatting with the parrots and mynahs, to whom he teaches puns and how to complete quotations, he takes a siesta, as is the custom in summer. After this he discusses with his pithamarda and the others about his appointments and disputes. A siesta at the time indicated is a duty during the summer, since it strengthens the body and is necessary for it.

The food of the ancient Hindus is described in various works. For refined people, it was of four kinds: food to be chewed, to be licked, to be sucked, and to be drunk. An ordinary diet included wheat, rice, rye, chick-peas, lentils, butter (ghee), and meat, with which the dishes were prepared. Before the meal, salt biscuits were eaten, and afterward sweet dishes.

After a meal, a gentleman would talk with his parrots and mynahs. In ancient India, parrots and mynahs were companions whether inside the harem or the hermitage in the forest. Townspeople as well as hermits had friendly relationships with these birds. Parrots and mynahs were faithful friends, sharing joys and sorrows. At that time, people were very close to these birds, whether in the chamber of love and the harem or the terrible fields of battle or the àúrams of the ascetics. Birds were companions for games, but also messengers for secret enterprises. Kings employed them widely, and they were attributed with great intelligence. They carried ardent messages between lovers and, during war, secret instructions. In the entrance hall of the house, cocks and quails (kukkuta) were kept, whose fights were an after-dinner amusement. Parrots and mynahs were kept in cages in the bedroom where the gentleman rested during daytime. He would amuse himself with their chatter. Teaching parrots and mynahs to talk, as well as cock fights and ram fights, belong to the sixty-four arts of pleasure of Vàtsyàyana.

9 The reception hall [goshthi] is located next to the living quarters.

In the evening, at nightfall, receptions are organized with music, dancing, singing, and instruments. When the guests are gathered, the master of the house, splendidly dressed, enters the reception hall, located on one side of the entrance courtyard.

10 In the evening, having listened to music, he returns with some friends to his dwelling where, with wine and incense, he awaits the arrival of the women invited for the night.

11 He has them called, or goes to collect them himself.

12 In the company of his friends, he then greets the women who have come, with pleasant words and affectionate behavior.

13 If the woman’s clothes are wet from the rain, during a sudden shower, he himself changes her clothes and gets his friends to help, for their service both day and night.

At dusk, numerous people gather for receptions, including singers, dancers, and the players of instruments.

Vàtsyàyana recommends that the gentleman should go to the reception room elegantly dressed. Elegance is a matter of the quality of clothes and jewels. Bharata gives some indications in his Nàtya Úàstra. An elegant man wears four kinds of clothes made of vegetable silk (kûauma), cotton (karpasa), natural silk (kaushya), or wool (rangava). Vegetable silk is made from hemp fiber and can also be made from bark.

After this, the gentleman puts on his jewels. Varahamihira describes thirteen kinds of precious stone and nine kinds of golden jewels. The stones are: diamond (vajra), pearl (mukta), ruby (padmaraga), emerald (marakata), sapphire (indramla), lapis-lazuli (vaidurya), topaz (pushparaga), a black stone, whetstone (kurketana), amber (pulaka), garnet (rudhirakûa), amethyst (bhishma), crystal (sphatika), opal (pravala).

To make up the jewels, the various kinds of jeweler were: the goldsmith (jambunada), the maker of gold vessels (shatakaumbha), the chaser (hataka), the cutter (venava), the refiner of gold for jewelry (shringi), the polisher of mother of pearl (shuktija), the glazer (jatarupa), the assembler (rasaviddha), the shaper (akaraudgata).

Jewels are of four kinds:

Avedhya, for which the flesh is pierced: earrings, diamond in the nose.

Nibandhaniya, attached with bands: attached to the arm (angada), “headband for the hair (veni), crown (shikhadridhika), belt (shroni sùtra), diadem (cùðàmaói).

Prakûepya, slipped on: ring (urmika), nailguards (kataka), bracelets (valaya), anklets (manjira).

Aropya, worn around the neck: necklaces (hara), necklace of twenty-seven pearls (nakûatramalika).

Once he is dressed and has put on his jewels, the gentleman adorns himself with garlands of flowers, which are of different kinds. There are narrow rows of jasmine, like a pearl necklace, heavy garlands made of great bunches, tight necklaces, wide necklaces, flexible necklaces, rigid necklaces. After putting on a garland, he puts on some scent. The perfumes in fashion were musk (kasturi), saffron (kunkuma), sandalwood (chandana), camphor (karpura), aloes (aguru), kulaka, lemon (dantashatha), lavender (patavasa), betel leaf (tambula), anjana (Hardivickia binata), bull’s gall (gorochana). These ingredients were used to scent beauty products, such as lacquers, oils, black for eyelids and eyebrows, and products for the hair and clothes. According to the season, the time, and the circumstances of his encounters, the gentleman was thus able to check the smell of sweat on his brow and in other parts of his body. He would adorn himself with dùrva herb (Cynodon dactylon), red ashoka flowers, arm ornaments and other silver ornaments known as cucumber, shell (shankha), palm leaf (taladala) or lotus fiber. Thus scented and wearing ear ornaments and bracelets, he entered the reception hall.

Gatherings at a rich gentleman’s house included seven kinds of guests: scholars (vidvana), poets (kavi), singers (gayaka), entertainers (masakhari), specialists in ancient history (itihasa), specialists in legendary epics (puràóa).

The same selection of participants is given in the Buddhist texts and in the lyric poems (kàvya).

According to Vàtsyàyana, there were bad and good receptions.

The first comprised games and drinking bouts, while the second were cultural, at which one spoke of literature and played innocent games. Cultured gentlemen organized various kinds of reception (goshthi). Those concerning poetry (pada), the theater (kàvya), and ballads (jalpa) took place in the center of studies.

The reception hall was the scene of singing (gìtà) and dancing (nåtya) entertainments and concerts of instrumental music (vadya) and in particular the vìóà.

Bàóa speaks of the gatherings of heros that took place in time of war, during which heroic tales were told.

Gatherings for music take place in the evening, at a time when the citizen feels sensitive and romantic.

After the concert, the citizen returns to his dwelling, where his chosen woman awaits him in a comfortably arranged bedroom. This is the chamber of love, where he clasps and embraces his wife or his paramours. On the door is depicted the god of love and two pretty girls, both sides of which are lighted with luck-bearing lamps. The frescos show the god of love under an ashoka tree, holding his flower-decorated bow. Beside the bed, which is covered with a white drape, stands on one side a gilded spittoon and on the other an ivory-encrusted statue bearing a silver vase with drinking water. Round mirrors are fixed to the walls of the chamber of love, so that the beloved can be seen from all angles.

14 Receptions were organized for seasonal festivities or events [ghata], for concerts or entertainments, for drinking parties [samapanakam], witticisms [samasyakrida], or for strolls in the garden [udyana].

Events mostly include pilgrimages to visit sanctuaries where people gather and, related to these, receptions taking place among the various social groups, at which theatrical entertainments are prevalent. In the afternoon gatherings take place for amusement and for drinking, at which are found those that drink and those that do not. Such gatherings mainly take place in the gardens, whether they are organized in one’s own home or at another person’s.

For the feast of the god of love, people wear orange clothes and stroll around with crowns of flowers on their head, playing musical instruments. On such days, the young people go and throw scented water over the prostitutes, who reply with abuse. They throw so much red powder that the day is darkened. The main liquors consumed include prasanna, arishtha, maireya, and mead (madhu).

15 Every fortnight or every month, on the proper days, it is a duty to gather at the sanctuary of the goddess Sarasvatì.

The proper days depend on the phases of the moon. The fourth day is dedicated to Gaóapati, the fifth to Sarasvatì, patron of dancing and music, the eighth to Úiva. The townspeople come to an agreement to organize dance spectacles at one or another’s house, each fifth day of the lunar calendar, in order to worship the goddess.

16 The musicians, who have come from elsewhere, have to be auditioned and, on the day before, they must receive their proper fee. Then, according to the admiration they manage to inspire, they either give a performance or are sent away. One must do the same with artists, either known or who have presented themselves.

17 Artists from outside, who come unexpectedly to take part in the performance during the festivities, must be welcomed and honored. This is the rule of their corporation [ganadharma].

At gatherings in honor of the goddess, if a stranger arrives, who is not one of the guests, he must be welcomed with the same consideration as the guests and must be helped if he is in difficulty. This forms part of the duty of the faithful. Women enthusiastically take part in these festivals.

18 Whatever the divinity worshiped, strangers must be welcomed according to the possibilities and the festival rules.

19 When a reception takes place in the house of a courtesan or in the house of a gentleman, the company of friends or comrades must be chosen for their common culture, intelligence, fortune, age, and character. This makes for pleasant conversation with the courtesans.

20 When gatherings take place to discuss matters of literature and art.

21 Talented celebrities are honored and uninvited artists welcomed respectfully.

22 People go to each others’ houses to drink.

Drinking parties take place at a fixed date every month or every fortnight in the house of someone or other.

23 There, the guests make the prostitutes drink, and themselves drink mead, wine, intoxicating liquors, while eating all kinds of salted fruits, salads, spicy foods, etc.

The principal drinks are made with honey [mead], molasses [rum], or alcohol distilled from maireya. Molasses alcohol is mixed with cardamom [mesha], aloes [shringi], cinnamon [tvach], and catechu [kattha]. Maireya liquor is mixed with long pepper [pippali], black pepper [maricha], and other ingredients, such as triphala [the three myrobalans]. Foam is removed from mead distilled with kapittha [wood apple] leaves. When the wine [sura] has fermented and been filtered, it is mixed with molasses. There are three kinds of liquors [surd], based on molasses [gandi], wheat [paishti], or honey [màdhavi]. The word sura is thus a general term, since it covers different kinds of drink.

Three kinds of appetizer — salted and with hot pepper, salads [harita], spicy dishes [katuka]— are served separately on shigru leaves [Molioga oleifera] with cardamoms.

The courtesans are invited to drink and eat the appetizers. To start with there is no sign of drunkenness. Restrained by local convention, the signs of excitation are not apparent, but will appear later on.

24 In the same way, people drink together during country outings.

Wine was made with grape juice (angur or dakha), also called kapishayana or harahuraka. Persons of taste (rasika) regularly drink distilled liquors, mixed with dried grapes, palasha (Butea frondosa), choh, maraka (black pepper), medashringi (aloes), karanja (Pongamia glabra), kûìravåkûa (gulara — Ficus religiosa), and malaka (Raphanus sativus). In summer, a powder was prepared, mixing fermented sugar to which had been added a little lodha peel (Symplocos racemosa) and a paste made of mahoa (wild fig), kalinga rye, turmeric, daruhaladi (Herberts asiatica), lotus (kamala), saunpha (mustard), chichinda (Trichosanthes anguina — snake gourd), sataparna (Desmodium gigantescum), and aka flowers (Calotropis gigantea), of which a handful would be thrown into the wine to flavor it. Sometimes, to improve its taste, five palas of ràva (fermented sugar) would be added.

To prepare maireya liquor, ginger peel (medashringi) was steeped and added together with molasses, long pepper (pippali), and black pepper (kali mircha), while sometimes triphala (myrobalan) was used instead of long pepper.

Four sorts of liquor were prepared with mango juice. The first, sahakara sura, was mixed with wine; the second, rasottara, with honey and molasses; the third, bìjottara, was based on seeds; while the fourth, sambhàrikì, was distilled.

Distilled liquors were made with pàthà (Stephania hemandifolia), lodhà (Symplocos racemosa), gajapipala (Scindapsus officinalis), cardamom, triphala (three myrobalans), mulahathi, milk tree, kesara (saffron), daruhaladi (Berberis asiatica), haldi (turmeric), mircha (pepper), pìpala (sacred fig).

The recipe for distilled liquor (asava) is:

100 palas of kanthà juice (kapittha, Feronia elephantum)

100 palas of ràva (fermented sugar)

1 prastha of shahad (honey)

Added ingredients include: 1 karsha each of dàlachini (cinnamon), chita (Plumbago zeylonica), vayavidanga (Embelia ribes), gajapipala (Sdndapsus officinalis), while for flavoring, two karshas of areca nuts (supari), mulahathi, motha (Cyperus rotundw), and lodha (Symphcos racemosa).

The measurements are:

1 prastha =32 pala (1500 gr)

1 pala = 4 karsha (48 gr)

1 karsha =16 màrsha (12 gr)

1 màrsha = 8 ratti (0.8 gr)

1 ratti = 8 chavàla

1 chavàla = 1/8 th of ratti.

While drinking these beverages, all kinds of small salty things were served or brought, as well as acidulated vegetables and sweetmeats, which are called appetizers (apadamstra). At receptions organized for drinking, the presence of courtesans was the rule. The master of the house filled their cups, or else they served themselves. On walks, girls were also present, and liquors would be drunk. Drinks were considered to give strength, courage, audaciousness, and spirit, and stimulated the | gentlemen’s eroticism. Care was taken not to put into the drinks anything harmful to the health of either body or mind.

25 The country party [udyànayàtrà]

Early in the morning, after dressing and putting on one’s jewels, one would mount on horseback and, taking servants and accompanied by whores, leave for the country, not too far — so as to be able to return in the evening. Having arrived at the spot, the time was spent watching cockfights, playing dice, watching the dancing, and doing exercises. Then, in the evening, one would return home, bringing bunches of flowers and green branches as a souvenir of the pleasures of the party in the country.

How were parties in the country spent?

Wearing elegant traveling clothes, they mount on horseback for a, .pleasure ride. The prostitutes precede them, or follow on horseback, as well as the servants who come to do their work.

Every fortnight or every month, the weather permitting, one goes out for the day. The custom of walks in the country is good for the health. When such walks take place in a garden, the time is pleasantly spent in games, cockfights, sports, or in watching the dancing. The prostitutes take part in the exercises.

In the afternoon, after a siesta, and having put on again one’s elegant clothes, one remounts together with the prostitutes and servants and, as a souvenir of the pleasures of the countryside, takes back flowers and sprays, returning home with flowers behind the ears and garlands of leaves.

26 During the summer, one goes where there is plenty of water, for water games.

The organization is similar to that necessary for country walks, but the accessories are different. The games consist of throwing water at each other, which can only be done during the hot season. With a group of friends, the citizen would go to a reservoir or pond that was free from crocodiles or other aquatic animals. Reservoirs were built to store water during the summer, since otherwise water games would not be possible.

“The gentleman wears clothes as thin as a snake’s skin and, scented with sandalwood and pàtala flowers (Stereospermum suavolens), goes to a shelter close to the river, where there are pools in which the girls play, plugging their ears with steeped shirisha flowers (Albizia). The water colored by sandalwood and musk reflects the lively colors of the clothes, the drops flung by the jets of water look like diamonds in the sky. The peacocks, mistaking the sound of drums for the noise of a storm, rush away” (Pràchìna Bharata Kalà Vilàsa).

27 For the feast of the genies [Yakûaràtrì], people stay awake, in the moonlight, as they also do at the spring festival.

The night of the genies is a night of rejoicing. It takes place at the first full moon of the month of Aúvin. People stay awake and play dice. At the spring festival, which is the feast of the god of love [madana], people sing, dance, and play instruments.

The Yakûaràtrì is nowadays called Divali. On that day, it is customary to worship the Yakûa, the genies, and play dice.

The spring festival belongs to the god of love. It is the day on which crowds walk around bearing images of Eros. The night is spent singing and dancing. According to the Bhavishya Puràóa, on the thirteenth day of the spring moon, one should worship the images of the god of love and his mistress Rati (desire). In the afternoon, a festive meal is offered to the musicians and in the evening, the celebrations include music, dancing, mimes, etc.

The Varshakriya Kaumudì quotes a passage from the Úaiva Agama saying that for the feast of the god of love, one should, from morning ; to afternoon, dance, sing, and use obscene language, throwing mud and colored dye. 

28 During parties in the country, one amuses oneself by opening mangoes, eating calces and lotus stalks, gathering fresh leaves, imitating the cry of the lion by using bamboos filled with water, making puns, gathering the red cotton plant flowers, battling with kadamba fruits [Anthocephalus cadamba], praising one’s respective country, playing games from different regions.

During walks, the citizen’s social games consist of gathering fruits and flowers; eating mangoes and lotus stalks, which are found near the ponds; imitating the roaring of the lion with a bamboo, by blowing into the water; battling with flowers; and imitating the countrymen’s way of speaking.

29 When one is alone, one should find one’s own ways of amusing oneself.

If one is alone because other citizens are absent or do not show up, one should celebrate festivals like Yakûaràtrì by amusing oneself with the servants.

30 Later on, we shall describe the proper behavior of well-bred people with courtesans, with their mistresses, and with their friends.

31 When a cultivated gentleman lacks money and all he has left is a wooden bed, some soap, and oil for his body, he should go to the gatherings and festivals of prosperous people and assure his livelihood by giving lessons to prostitutes. By thus becoming their teacher, he acquires the position of pìthamarda [steward and dancing master].

No longer having the means of subsistence, having only his own body, with neither wife nor children, he strays without resources through the land and must earn his living in the service of others, seeking a place to establish himself. In his own town, where he was respected, he had studied with his teachers the sixty-four arts and the five techniques and can therefore teach them to others.

He attends the receptions given by citizens and, by teaching prostitutes the arts, he is appreciated for his teaching and earns his living as their pithamarda [secretary-steward].

According to the Nàtya Úàstra, “Dancing and music are more pleasing to the gods than rites and prayers. He who assiduously attends dancing performances and takes part in them attains the same result as those who make ritual sacrifices or practice charity.”

Music, dancing, and the theater are not considered as mereamusements in India, but as a means of teaching and of achieving the four aims of life. This is why the festivals and spectacles are organized in such a way that all social classes can take part.

32 An intelligent and well-born man, expert in the arts, who has dissipated his wealth and broken off with his family, but is esteemed in the houses of the courtesans and in fashionable circles and lives at their expense is known as a gigolo [vita],

Having squandered his fortune on pleasure during his youth, he now finds himself destitute, although he comes of a good family. He is of the place and not from outside. If he has a wife, he may not leave the country due to this bond. For a living, he works as a pithamarda, a man of all work, but, due to his qualities and his education, he is still a man of the world. He is intelligent and cultivated and attends receptions as a sponger. For other resources, he stays with the courtesans, living at their expense, despite the ill-will of their menfolk. Since he lives parasitically on them, he is called a gigolo [vita]. According to the meaning of the word, a vita is someone who, to earn his living, makes love professionally and in public.

Due to his knowledge of good manners, inherited from his family, he practices the profession of a man of all work (pithamarda) and in exchange, is nourished by the courtesans to whom he gives lessons in deportment.

33 If he does not know the tricks, he is a plaything, an object of amusement, but if he inspires confidence, he becomes a companion and amusing confidant [vidushaka], while continuing sometimes to play the clown [vaihasika].

A stranger, without any means of subsistence, ruined, possessing nothing but his own body, wandering, scared of everything, with nothing remaining of his former fortune, is a laughingstock. If he becomes i a man of trust, however, he is welcomed by the courtesans and received in fashionable society [goshthi], since he makes people laugh. When he has gained a certain respectability among the courtesans and in fashionable society, he plays the role of confidant [vidushaka]. At first an object of amusement to the courtesans and fashionable world, he knows how to make people laugh and is treated as an entertainer [vaihasika].

34 Employed as a secretary [mantri], he busies himself with the appointments and breaches, between courtesans and citizens.

He is considered a second-class citizen [upandgaraka]. His qualities are to understand the right time and place for meetings or breaches.

35 He utilizes beggar-women, shaven-headed nuns expert in the arts, women of irregular life, or old whores, to arrange appointments.

Vàtsyàyana makes it appear that riches and social position are connected. For him, the citizen means the rich bourgeois class. As a character represented in works for the theater, the confidant (vidushaka) is generally a Bràhmaóa. Indeed, Bràhmaóa can be found practicing the profession of merchants, but also of man of all work (pithamarda), gigolo (vita), and confidant (vidushaka). 

36 If one lives in a village, one must surround oneself with people of one’s own milieu, intelligent, willing to be amused, active, well mannered, and respecting the castes. Receptions must be organized, since people amuse themselves when they are together. In business, one must treat one’s employees with kindness, even when faced with their failings. Such is the behavior of the well-brought-up man. His dependents must be respectful but, during festivals and journeys, as also in business, one must be courteous and aid each other reciprocally.

37 At gatherings, an educated man should not speak solely in Sanskrit or solely in the language of the people.

38 A prudent man will not attend meetings where there are enemies, spies, or criminals.

39 The wise predict a sure success for a man of wit with moderate behavior, who plays only reasonable games.

When attending gatherings, a person should conform to the customs of the people, going only where the atmosphere is amusing and agreeable. Only thus will he manage to acquire fame.

End of the Fourth Chapter

The Conduct of the Well-bred Townsman

of the First Part entitled General Remarks